Half of world’s rangelands are degraded, UN study finds: What are rangelands, why they matter

<p>Context:</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>About half of the world’s rangelands are degraded and need policy interventions, and communities depending on them need focused support, according to a new report of the United Nations Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD).</li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">What are rangelands?</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>The UNCCD report defines rangelands as natural or semi-natural ecosystems that are grazed by livestock or wild animals.</li><li>Rangelands contain vegetation such as grasses, shrubs, bushes, open forests, and agroforestry systems (land which contains trees and crops or pastures).</li><li>The exact nature of rangelands’ vegetation is influenced by rainfall, temperature, and other climate phenomena.</li><li>Rangeland Atlas is prepared by a consortium of international non-profits and United Nations agencies.</li><li>Extant of rangelands:<ul><li>Currently, rangelands cover 80 million sq km of Earth’s terrestrial surface area (over half of Earth’s land) and are thus the largest land cover or land use type in the world.</li><li>In India, rangelands occupy about 1.21 million sq km, from the Thar Desert to Himalayan meadows.</li></ul></li><li>Environmental and social significance:<ul><li>They act as carbon sinks, storehouses of fresh water, and prevent desertification of land.</li><li>They provide food security and livelihoods to millions of people.</li><li>Rangelands generate 16% of global food production and 70% of feed for domesticated herbivores, most significantly in Africa and South America.</li></ul></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">UNCCD Report Findings:</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>Approximately 50% of the world’s rangelands are classified as “degraded” and are in decline.</li><li>Factors contributing to this degradation include climate change, unsustainable land and livestock management practices, biodiversity loss, and conversion of rangelands to farmlands.</li><li>Uncertainty over land rights among pastoralist communities exacerbates degradation.</li><li>Impact on Communities:<ul><li>Deterioration of rangelands adversely affects communities dependent on them.</li><li>Consequences include reduced soil fertility, biodiversity loss, decreased incomes, and increased conflicts over grazing rights with authorities.</li></ul></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">Who are Pastoralists?</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>Pastoralism is a livelihood centred around livestock production, including dairy, meat, wool, and leather.</li><li>Pastoralists are communities, both indigenous and non-indigenous, engaged in livestock rearing.</li><li>They rear a variety of animals including sheep, goats, cattle, horses, donkeys, camels, yaks, llamas, alpacas, pigs, ducks, and chickens.</li><li>Their livelihood depends significantly on access to quality pasturelands (rangelands) and their rights over them.</li><li>Global and Indian Context:<ul><li>Globally, an estimated 500 million pastoralists are involved in livestock production.</li><li>In India, approximately 13 million pastoralists are part of 46 groups such as Gujjars, Bakarwals, Rebaris, Raikas, Kurubas, and Maldharis.</li></ul></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">Economic Contributions in India:</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>India holds 20% of the world’s livestock population, with 77% reared in pastoralist systems.</li><li>Pastoralists play a crucial role in protecting indigenous livestock breeds and preserving traditional knowledge of animal rearing.</li><li>India leads globally in milk production (23% of global output), buffalo meat production, and sheep and goat meat exports, with pastoralists making significant contributions to these sectors.</li><li>Some important pastoral communities and regions they belong:</li></ul><p><strong></strong></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWyNYJckZU0KjAIRVpyJQaM1m6z4HFj4Y7ok9Zn4AfJcNYH4hc-nuDS_wiQLkjnp8Twwtwi6_zM3pc_wm5vyBXU72iDiKEZo7tjDq9Q5jlZetCpls5njKvEOHRhMXZUJxOi6CcGJi9fvaiYJgiJYFdcd5Sf2gc2lBeAXNJgGgewZmY0epXaysU3GtnSNo/s1062/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2019-57-55%20Half%20of%20world%E2%80%99s%20rangelands%20are%20degraded%20UN%20study%20finds%20What%20are%20rangelands%20why%20they%20matter%20-%20Optimize%20IAS.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="634" data-original-width="1062" height="382" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWyNYJckZU0KjAIRVpyJQaM1m6z4HFj4Y7ok9Zn4AfJcNYH4hc-nuDS_wiQLkjnp8Twwtwi6_zM3pc_wm5vyBXU72iDiKEZo7tjDq9Q5jlZetCpls5njKvEOHRhMXZUJxOi6CcGJi9fvaiYJgiJYFdcd5Sf2gc2lBeAXNJgGgewZmY0epXaysU3GtnSNo/w640-h382/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2019-57-55%20Half%20of%20world%E2%80%99s%20rangelands%20are%20degraded%20UN%20study%20finds%20What%20are%20rangelands%20why%20they%20matter%20-%20Optimize%20IAS.png" width="640" /></a></strong></div><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Pastoralism in Africa astoralism in Africa:</p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><li>In Africa, even today, over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood.</li><li>Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over the colonial and post-colonial periods.</li><li>Some pastoralist communities in Africa:<ul><li>Bedouins, Berber, Maasai,Somali, Boran, Turkana and Kaokoland herders (Namibia).</li></ul></li></ul><p> Source: <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/rangelands-degraded-un-study-pastoralists-9345551/">https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-climate/rangelands-degraded-un-study-pastoralists-9345551<strong>/<br /></strong></a></p>

current affairs environment Half of world’s rangelands are degraded, UN study finds: What are rangelands, why they matter

Context: About half of the world’s rangelands are degraded and need policy interventions, and communities depending on them need focused sup...

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Plagiarism and self-plagiarism -Consequences of Plagiarism

<p> Both plagiarism and self-plagiarism are serious concerns in research methodology, as they undermine the integrity and credibility of your work. Here's a breakdown of each concept and its relevance to research methods:<br /><br /><b>Plagiarism:</b><br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> Definition: Plagiarism involves using someone else's ideas, methods, or data without proper attribution. This includes copying text verbatim, paraphrasing without citing the source, or presenting someone else's findings as your own.</li><li> Impact on Research Methodology: Plagiarism in research methodology can take several forms:</li><li> Copying someone else's research design, methodology section, or data collection methods without attribution.</li><li> Failing to cite sources for existing research findings or theoretical frameworks used in your methodology.</li><li> Misrepresenting someone else's research data or manipulating data to fit your own hypothesis.</li></ul><p><b>Self-Plagiarism:</b><br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> Definition: Self-plagiarism refers to reusing significant portions of your own previously published work without proper citation in a new research project.</li><li> Impact on Research Methodology: While not as severe as plagiarism, self-plagiarism in research methodology can also be problematic:</li><li> Reusing identical or heavily paraphrased methods sections from your past research without acknowledging the prior publication.</li><li> Presenting previously collected data as new data in a new research project, without mentioning the original source.</li><li> Submitting the same research proposal to multiple funding agencies or conferences.</li></ul><p style="text-align: left;">Why are Both Issues in Research Methodology?<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> Lack of Originality: Both plagiarism and self-plagiarism hinder the advancement of knowledge by failing to present new methodological approaches or insights.</li><li> Redundancy: Reusing methods without adaptation can suggest a lack of effort in developing a research design specific to the new project's needs.</li><li> Ethical Concerns: Both practices violate ethical principles of research integrity and can be considered academic dishonesty.</li></ul><p style="text-align: left;">Avoiding Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism:<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> Proper Citation: Always cite your sources correctly whenever you reference existing research methods, theoretical frameworks, or data in your methodology section.</li><li> Paraphrasing Effectively: When referencing your own previous work, paraphrase the text and clearly cite the original source.</li><li> Developing New Methods: Strive to design research methods that are tailored to your current research question and that build upon, rather than simply replicate, previous methodologies.</li><li> Transparency: Be transparent about any data or methods reused from your previous work, clearly explaining the context and providing proper citation.</li></ul><p> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM5x3nHOj_beS1a6UBc0r9KVepi5ZyfrcV8klMnYLraUTOPDo0_R3HoSDyhXAtZbOIM4b3q4ZZdvMkxCZmc6fxrGBJj_X62cY4-1TJz5VhQRG-H-K_t_8p58fjr6Tkm8PjKE_s4rDXgfnsthmb7QwemjjaoLQsbpJUNx7jYbOta9eJTj35zq2UqKeldOo/s1051/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2010-56-15%20Navigating%20the%20Nuances%20of%20Plagiarism%20and%20Self-Plagiarism.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="421" data-original-width="1051" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM5x3nHOj_beS1a6UBc0r9KVepi5ZyfrcV8klMnYLraUTOPDo0_R3HoSDyhXAtZbOIM4b3q4ZZdvMkxCZmc6fxrGBJj_X62cY4-1TJz5VhQRG-H-K_t_8p58fjr6Tkm8PjKE_s4rDXgfnsthmb7QwemjjaoLQsbpJUNx7jYbOta9eJTj35zq2UqKeldOo/w640-h256/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2010-56-15%20Navigating%20the%20Nuances%20of%20Plagiarism%20and%20Self-Plagiarism.png" width="640" /></a></p><p> Consequences of Plagiarism<br /></p><ul class="i8Z77e"><li class="TrT0Xe">Destroyed Student Reputation. Plagiarism allegations can cause a student to be suspended or expelled. ... </li><li class="TrT0Xe">Destroyed Professional Reputation. </li><li class="TrT0Xe">Destroyed Academic Reputation. </li><li class="TrT0Xe">Legal Repercussions.  </li><li class="TrT0Xe">Monetary Repercussions.  </li><li class="TrT0Xe">Plagiarized Research.</li></ul><h3>Destroyed Student Reputation</h3> <p>Plagiarism allegations can cause a student to be suspended or expelled. Their academic record can reflect the ethics offense, possibly causing the student to be barred from entering college from high school or another college. Schools, colleges, and universities take plagiarism very seriously. Most educational institutions have academic integrity committees who police students. Many schools suspend students for their first violation. Students are usually expelled for further offences.</p> <h3>Destroyed Professional Reputation</h3> <p>A professional business person, politician, or public figure may find that the damage from plagiarism follows them for their entire career. Not only will they likely be fired or asked to step down from their present position, but they will surely find it difficult to obtain another respectable job. Depending on the offense and the plagiarist’s public stature, his or her name may become ruined, making any kind of meaningful career impossible.</p> <h3>Destroyed Academic Reputation</h3> <p>The consequences of plagiarism have been widely reported in the world of academia. Once scarred with plagiarism allegations, an academic’s career can be ruined. Publishing is an integral part of a prestigious academic career. To lose the ability to publish most likely means the end of an academic position and a destroyed reputation.</p> <h3>Legal Repercussions</h3> <p>The legal repercussions of plagiarism can be quite serious. Copyright laws are absolute. One cannot use another person’s material without citation and reference. An author has the right to sue a plagiarist. Some plagiarism may also be deemed a criminal offense, possibly leading to a prison sentence. Those who write for a living, such as journalists or authors, are particularly susceptible to plagiarism issues. Those who write frequently must be ever-vigilant not to err. Writers are well-aware of copyright laws and ways to avoid plagiarism. As a professional writer, to plagiarize is a serious ethical and perhaps legal issue.</p> <h3>Monetary Repercussions</h3> <p>Many recent news reports and articles have exposed plagiarism by journalists, authors, public figures, and researchers. In the case where an author sues a plagiarist, the author may be granted monetary restitution. In the case where a journalist works for a magazine, newspaper or other publisher, or even if a student is found plagiarizing in school, the offending plagiarist could have to pay monetary penalties.</p> <h3>Plagiarized Research</h3> <p>Plagiarized research is an especially egregious form of plagiarism. If the research is medical in nature, the consequences of plagiarism could mean the loss of peoples’ lives. This kind of plagiarism is particularly heinous.</p> <p>The consequences of plagiarism are far-reaching and no one is immune. Neither ignorance nor stature excuses a person from the ethical and legal ramifications of committing plagiarism. Before attempting any writing project, learn about plagiarism. Find out what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid it. The rules are easy to understand and follow. If there is any question about missing attribution, try using an online plagiarism checker or plagiarism detection software to check your writing for plagiarism before turning it in. Laziness or dishonesty can lead to a ruined reputation, the loss of a career, and legal problems.</p><p>Source: https://guides.library.ucmo.edu/plagiarism<br /></p><p style="text-align: left;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><p></p>

Research Methodology Plagiarism and self-plagiarism -Consequences of Plagiarism

 Both plagiarism and self-plagiarism are serious concerns in research methodology, as they undermine the integrity and credibility of your w...

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Ethical issues related to publishing

<p>1. Study design and ethics approval</p><div class="sec sec-first" id="s2.1"><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>COPE emphasizes the importance of well-planned, ethically approved research.</li><li>A research protocol should be developed and adhered to, with roles clearly defined by all team members.</li><li>Research should aim to answer specific questions, not just collect data.</li><li>Institutional Review Board or Ethics Committee approval is crucial for studies involving people, medical records, and anonymised human tissues.</li><li>Research proposals should address potential ethical issues, especially for vulnerable subjects.</li><li>Patient information sheets should be provided during recruitment, detailing objectives, procedures, benefits, harms, and rights to refuse participation.</li><li>Consent should be obtained from subjects or guardians, and confidentiality of information should be ensured.</li></ul></div><div class="sec sec-first" id="s2.1"> 2. Data Analysis in Research<ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Researchers must appropriately analyze data to avoid misconduct.</li><li>Intentional omission of results can lead to misinterpretation and mislead.</li><li>Fabrication and falsification of data are considered misconduct.</li><li>Under-reporting negative research findings is common due to pressure from the pharmaceutical industry.</li><li>Full disclosure of all data sources and methods is crucial for appropriate data analysis.</li><li>Discussion sections should address bias issues and explain how they were addressed in the study's design and interpretation. </li></ul></div><div class="sec sec-first" id="s2.1">3. Authorship Definition and Importance<ul style="text-align: left;"><li>No universally agreed definition of authorship.</li><li>Authors should have made substantial contributions to the intellectual content.</li><li>Authors should conceptualize, design, acquire, analyze, and interpret data.</li><li>Authors should certify the manuscript's validity and take public responsibility.</li><li>Authors usually draft or revise the manuscript and approve the submitted one.</li><li>Data collection, grammar, and language editing do not deserve authorship.</li><li>Early decision-making is crucial in research planning.</li><li>The "Advice to Authors" of the target journal can guide authorship issues.</li></ul></div><div class="sec sec-first" id="s2.1">4. Conflicts of Interest in Research<ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Conflicts of interest can influence researchers' judgments on published work.</li><li>These conflicts can be personal, commercial, political, academic, or financial.</li><li>Financial interests can include employment, research funding, stock ownership, payment for travel, consultancies, and company support.</li><li>These conflicts should be discussed early in the research process.</li><li>Researchers should consult an independent researcher or Ethics Committee if doubts arise.</li><li>Conflicts of interest should be declared to editors during publication. </li></ul></div><p> 5. Redundant Publication and Plagiarism in Research<br /><br />Redundant Publication:</p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Involves two or more papers sharing the same hypothesis, data, discussion points, or conclusions without full cross-referencing.</li><li>Previous publication does not preclude subsequent submission, but full disclosure is required.</li><li>Self-plagiarism is a growing issue in a competitive environment influencing appointments, promotions, and grant applications.</li></ul><p>Plagiarism:<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Ranges from unreferenced use of others' published ideas to submission under "new" authorship.</li><li>It's crucial to disclose all sources of information and seek permission for large amounts of other people's materials.</li></ul>

Research Methodology Ethical issues related to publishing

1. Study design and ethics approval COPE emphasizes the importance of well-planned, ethically approved research. A research protocol should ...

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When and where to publish research paper

<h3 style="text-align: center;">Where to publish research paper?<br /></h3><p></p><p>Here are some of the places where you can publish your paper <br /></p><h3 style="text-align: left;">1. Conferences</h3><p>The internet has not stopped traditional face-to-face meetings, but conferences still provide valuable networking opportunities and feedback for improving studies or manuscripts. </p><p>Journals allow research to appear as posters or abstracts in peer-reviewed proceedings, but may not allow republishing after publishing a full or partial version. Some journals may require new content before submission and require copyright permission. </p><p>The Ingelfinger Rule protects the public from misinformation and allows journals to publish full reports. Some countries and journals have media embargo systems to allow for accurate news writing and wider distribution. However, the internet has made it easy for fake conferences and proceedings to be organized. </p><h3 style="text-align: left;">2. <span id="Blogs_social_platforms_and_own_websites">Blogs, social platforms, and own websites</span></h3> <p>Blogs, general social media, scholarly collaboration networks (e.g., <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.researchgate.net/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="12958" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.researchgate.net/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">ResearchGate</a>, <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.academia.edu/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="12968" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.academia.edu/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Academia</a>), researchers’ own websites, and institutional websites are popular for sharing research ideas and findings widely, especially as nontechnical summaries after formal publication.</p> <p>However, whether the full text of a published journal article can be shared directly on those sites depends on the copyright and licensing arrangements of the journal.</p> <p><span class="scayt-misspell-word" data-scayt-word="Postpublication" data-wsc-id="kume12elnuu575cpm" data-wsc-lang="en_US">Postpublication</span> promotion of your research in the form of lay summaries and news stories can also be done on dedicated news sites such as <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.eurekalert.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="13718" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">EurekAlert!</a> and <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.alphagalileo.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="13726" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.alphagalileo.org/en-gb/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">AlphaGalilieo</a>, and other platforms such as <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.growkudos.com/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="13738" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://info.growkudos.com/research-stories-communication-impact" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Kudos </a>and <a data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="13755" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://ourresearch.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">OurResearch</a>.</p> <p>A problem for people who share research findings in websites and social media <b>before </b>formal publication is that these postings are not peer reviewed, may constitute prior publication, and could be plagiarized by others but not be detected by text-matching software because they may not be included in the comparison database.</p> <p>Two cases reported to the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) have involved a research paper that plagiarized blog content and an author who posted the accepted version of a paper on a website without permission.</p> <p>Again, it’s best to check with the journal what they deem as prior publication and what versions of a paper can be self-archived and when.</p><h3 style="text-align: left;"> 3. <span id="Trial_registries">Trial registries</span></h3> <p>Reputable journals that publish prospective human trials require the advance online registration of the study protocol in a clinical trials database/registry (e.g., <a data-cke-saved-href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="16785" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov" rel="noopener" target="_blank">www.clinicaltrials.gov</a>), before the actual study started.</p> <p>The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors does not consider <a data-cke-saved-href="http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/publishing-and-editorial-issues/clinical-trial-registration.html" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="17435" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="http://www.icmje.org/about-icmje/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">trial registration and certain registry declarations of the results</a> to be prior publication. The norm is for interventional (experimental) <a data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="17471" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://learning.edanz.com/clinical-study-clinical-trial-types/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">clinical trials</a> to be registered, but some journals also encourage human observational (nonexperimental) studies to be registered.</p><h3 style="text-align: left;">4. <span id="Data_repositories">Data repositories</span></h3> <p>Online repositories such as <a data-cke-saved-href="http://datadryad.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="20135" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="http://datadryad.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Dryad</a>, <a data-cke-saved-href="https://figshare.com/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="20142" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://figshare.com/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Figshare</a>, and <a data-cke-saved-href="https://zenodo.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="20153" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://zenodo.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Zenodo</a> accept data files, <span class="scayt-misspell-word" data-scayt-word="slidesets" data-wsc-id="kume12ho6b0rhpzon" data-wsc-lang="en_US">slidesets</span>, papers, media files, posters, and other research outputs. Some repositories, including the three named examples, are integrated with <a data-cke-saved-href="https://orcid.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="20169" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://orcid.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">ORCID</a>, where you can keep a complete research record under a unique personal number.</p> <p>The objects that you self-archive are not peer reviewed but receive digital object identifiers (<span class="scayt-misspell-word" data-scayt-word="DOIs" data-wsc-id="kume12q6yyw1t3o4t" data-wsc-lang="en_US">DOIs</span>) and are hence persistently findable and linkable. Files are citable, can be freely shared, and can be used as supplementary files during journal submissions. Some repositories may be partnered with journals.</p><h3 style="text-align: left;">5. <span id="Preprints">Preprints</span></h3> <p>Preprints (or “working papers”) are drafts of manuscripts that authors may upload/post/deposit to general or discipline-specific preprint servers, or to own websites or institutional or commercial/noncommercial data repositories.</p> <p>Preprints have not been formally peer reviewed and must not have been formally published by a peer-reviewed journal. Using preprint servers, authors can usually post revisions of preprints but previous versions are retained for reference.</p> <p style="text-align: justify;">The <a data-cke-saved-href="https://arxiv.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="21767" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://arxiv.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">arXiv</a> site is the most well known preprint server and was established in 1991 for physics, mathematics, computer science, and other disciplines. Newer preprint servers include <a data-cke-saved-href="http://www.biorxiv.org/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="21775" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.biorxiv.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">bioRxiv</a> (for biology), <a data-cke-saved-href="https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="21787" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://psyarxiv.com/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">PsyArXiv</a> (for psychology), <a data-cke-saved-href="https://osf.io/view/socarxiv/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="21793" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://osf.io/view/socarxiv/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">SocArXiv </a>(for social sciences) and <a data-cke-saved-href="https://osf.io/preprints/engrxiv/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="21805" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://engrxiv.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">engrXiv</a> (for engineering).</p><p> </p><p> </p><h3 style="text-align: left;">6. <span id="Open_access_repositories">Open access repositories</span></h3> <p>Some funders require that research outputs be made freely available, so “green open access” journals may allow authors to self-archive preprints and accepted versions – but not the final published article (“version of record”). “Gold open access” journals allow self-archiving of the final version, for noncommercial use or also commercial use. Please consult individual journal policies for special arrangements to comply with open access mandates of research funders.</p> <p>For example, if research was funded by the US National Institutes of Health, publishers or authors would need to upload relevant accepted manuscripts or final published articles to the <a data-cke-saved-href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="25504" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">PubMedCentral</a> repository.</p><p> </p><h3 style="text-align: left;"> 7. <span id="Theses_and_dissertations">Theses and dissertations</span></h3> <p>Although not formally published, student theses and dissertations may be available online via university libraries or national repositories. Generally in the UK, theses are what PhD candidates write and dissertations are what Master students write, but in the US, the terms are switched around. In some countries, the terms are interchangeable.</p> <p>Most journals allow manuscript submissions that have been derived from degree work, but be sure by checking journal guidelines and by declaring the origin of the work in your cover letter.</p> <p>Beware of <a data-cke-saved-href="http://www.fairtrading.nsw.gov.au/Consumers/Scams/Types_of_scams/Vanity_publishers.html" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="27131" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://beallslist.net/vanity-press/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">unethical vanity presses</a> and print-on-demand/print-to-order services that may invite you to self-publish your thesis as a book without peer review or editing, and maybe after copyright transfer and payment.</p> <h3 style="text-align: left;"><span id="Books">8. Books</span></h3> <p>Some researchers, especially in the humanities and social sciences, formally publish their work as book chapters, books, and monographs rather than journal articles. After obtaining necessary permissions, some authors publish books containing all or parts of previously published journal articles. Academic books of reputable publishers undergo peer review, but books tend not to be cited as much as journal articles.</p> <h3 style="text-align: left;"><span id="Journals">9.Journals</span></h3> <p>Formal publication of research is most often done in peer-reviewed journals of publishers, companies, societies, and universities. There is more to selecting the best target journal than simply looking at the Journal Impact Factor. Some institutions, publishers, organizations, and individuals have signed the <a data-cke-saved-href="http://www.ascb.org/dora/" data-gtm-vis-first-on-screen1796861_809="28898" data-gtm-vis-has-fired1796861_809="1" data-gtm-vis-total-visible-time1796861_809="100" href="https://sfdora.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA)</a> statement and are moving away from tracking journal <span class="scayt-misspell-word" data-scayt-word="bibliometrics" data-wsc-id="kume14ag9g42lk8yd" data-wsc-lang="en_US">bibliometrics</span>.</p> <p>Many types of journals exist — for example, by topic and readership, by article type (e.g., review journals and some methodology journals do not publish original research), by mode of peer review, by medium (print, online, or both), and by publishing model (open access, subscription, pay-per-view).</p> <p>A major difference between some journals is their selection criteria. In addition to assessing academic/scientific quality (which could be called objective or technical peer review), some journals emphasize potential importance or impact, or newsworthiness (which could be called subjective, nontechnical, or journalistic peer review).</p><h3 style="text-align: center;"> When to publish research paper ?<br /></h3><p> <span class="ILfuVd" lang="en"><span class="hgKElc">The timeline for publishing a research paper can vary depending on the field, complexity of the research, and the specific journals review process. However, many researchers are able to complete their research, write the paper, go through the peer-review process, and have it published <b>within a year</b>.</span></span></p>

Research Methodology When and where to publish research paper

Where to publish research paper? Here are some of the places where you can publish your paper 1. Conferences The internet has not stopped tr...

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Impact factor of Journals

<p>Impact Factor (IF) in Journals<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>IF is a measure of a journal's relative importance in its field, introduced by Eugene Garfield.</li><li>It is not linked to the quality of peer review or content, but rather the average number of citations to articles published in various media.</li><li>Journals with higher IFs are considered more important than those with lower ones.</li><li>The highest IF is the one that publishes the most commonly cited articles over a 2-year period.</li><li>IF applies only to journals, not individual articles or scientists.</li><li>The IF of a journal is calculated annually by Thomson Scientific for those journals it indexes and published in Journal Citation Reports.</li><li>The IF for biomedical journals can range up to 5-8%.</li><li>The calculation of IF for a journal where a person has published articles is a contentious issue, but Eugene Garfield warns against making personal judgments. </li></ul><p>The impact factor (IF) is a metric used to assess the influence of an academic journal.<br /><br /> It essentially reflects the average number of times articles published in a particular journal are cited within a specific time frame (usually two years) by other scholarly publications. Here's a breakdown of how it works:<br /><br /><b>Calculation:</b><br /><br />The impact factor for a given year is calculated by dividing the number of citations in that year to articles published in the journal during the previous two years, by the total number of citable items published in those two years.<br /><br />For example, if a journal has an impact factor of 5, it means that, on average, articles published in that journal over the past two years were cited 5 times each in the current year by other scholarly publications.<br /><br />Impact and Limitations:<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> <b>Higher Impact Factor</b>: Generally, journals with higher impact factors are considered more prestigious and influential within their field. This can be a deciding factor when choosing a journal to submit your research for publication, as publishing in a high-impact journal can increase the visibility and reach of your work.</li><li> <b>Limitations</b>: It's important to recognize that impact factor has limitations. Here are some to consider:</li><li> <b>Field-Specific:</b> Impact factor can vary significantly across different academic disciplines. A high impact factor in computer science might not be as impressive in a field like literary studies.</li><li> <b>Citation Practices:</b> Citation practices can differ between fields. Some fields naturally generate more citations than others, which can skew the impact factor.</li><li> <b>Article Age:</b> Impact factor is an average and doesn't reflect the citation rates of individual articles. Newer articles may not have had enough time to be cited extensively.</li><li> <b>Focus on Citations</b>: Impact factor solely focuses on citations and doesn't necessarily reflect the quality or originality of the research itself.</li></ul><h3 style="text-align: left;">Alternatives to Impact Factor:</h3><p style="text-align: left;">While impact factor remains a widely used metric, other journal evaluation methods are gaining traction. Here are a few examples:<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> <b>CiteScore:</b> This metric, calculated by Elsevier's Scopus database, is similar to impact factor but considers citations to a journal's articles over a four-year window.</li><li> <b>Eigenfactor Score</b>: This metric takes into account the prestige of the citing journals, giving more weight to citations from high-impact journals.</li><li> <b>Altmetrics:</b> This approach looks beyond traditional citations and considers mentions of the research on social media, news outlets, and other online platforms.</li></ul><p style="text-align: left;">Choosing a Journal:<br /><br />When selecting a journal for your research, consider impact factor alongside other factors like:<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>    Journal Scope: Does the journal's area of focus align with your research topic?</li><li>    Target Audience: Who are the intended readers of the journal?</li><li>    Submission Guidelines: Does your research adhere to the journal's formatting and content requirements?</li><li>    Publication Timeline: How long does the journal typically take to review and publish articles? </li></ul>

Research Methodology Impact factor of Journals

Impact Factor (IF) in Journals IF is a measure of a journal's relative importance in its field, introduced by Eugene Garfield. It is not...

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Journals in Computer Science

<p> Journals are scholarly publications that present the latest research findings, reviews, and other content relevant to a specific academic discipline. In computer science, numerous journals cover a wide range of topics and cater to different research areas.<br /><br />Here are some of the top computer science journals:<br /></p><p>1<b>. Communications of the ACM (CACM)</b>:Published by the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), CACM is a leading journal that covers a broad spectrum of computer science research, including theory, software engineering, programming languages, and emerging technologies.</p><p><b>2. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence (PAMI):</b></p><p>This IEEE journal is a prominent publication in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), focusing on image and signal processing, computer vision, and pattern recognition. </p><p><b>3. Journal of the ACM (JACM):</b></p><p>Another highly regarded ACM journal, JACM publishes theoretical computer science research, covering areas like algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, and cryptography.</p><p><b>4. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR):</b></p><p>This journal features in-depth review articles that summarize the current state of knowledge on specific computer science topics.<br /></p><p><b>5. Artificial Intelligence (AI):</b></p><p>Published by Elsevier, AI is a leading journal dedicated to research on the theoretical and practical aspects of artificial intelligence.</p><p><b>6. VLDB Journal:</b></p><p>This journal focuses on research related to very large databases (VLDB), covering data management systems, query processing, and data warehousing.<br /></p><p><b>7. Software Engineering Journal (SEJ):</b></p><p>Published by the British Computer Society, SEJ covers various aspects of software engineering,<br />including software development methodologies, requirements engineering, testing, and project management.</p><p><b>8. Nature Machine Intelligence:</b></p><p>This journal, published by the Nature Research group, focuses on cutting-edge research in machine learning and artificial intelligence.<br /></p><p>9. <b>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)</b> - Computer Science:PNAS publishes high-impact research across all scientific disciplines, including a computer science section featuring significant theoretical and applied contributions.</p><p>10. <strong>Science Robotics:</strong><span>This journal,</span><span> published by the Science Advances family,</span><span> features research on robotics encompassing design,</span><span> control,</span><span> perception,</span><span> and applications in various domains.</span></p><p><span>These are just a few examples,<br /><br /> and the specific journals you'll encounter will depend on your area of interest within computer science.<br /><br /><b>Choosing a Journal:</b><br /><br />Selecting the right journal to publish your research is crucial. Here are some factors to consider:<br /></span></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span> </span>Scope and Focus: Ensure the journal aligns with your research topic and falls within its area of coverage.</li><li> Impact Factor: Consider the journal's impact factor, which reflects the average number of citations articles published in that journal receive over a specific period.</li><li> Audience: Identify the journal's target audience to ensure your research reaches the intended readership.</li><li> Submission Guidelines: Carefully review the journal's submission guidelines to ensure your manuscript adheres to formatting, style, and content requirements.</li><li> Publication Timeline: Consider the journal's typical processing time for reviewing and publishing articles. </li></ol>

Research Methodology Journals in Computer Science

 Journals are scholarly publications that present the latest research findings, reviews, and other content relevant to a specific academic d...

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Layout of a Research Paper

<p> A typical research paper follows a specific structure to present information logically and ensure clarity for the reader.</p><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container">Preliminary Pages:<ul style="text-align: left;"><li><b>Title Page:</b> This includes the title of your research, your name(s) and affiliation(s), instructor's name (if applicable), course name (if applicable), and submission date.</li><li> <b>Abstract (Optional):</b> This is a concise summary (usually 150-250 words) that outlines the research topic, methodology, key findings, and conclusions.</li></ul><b>Main Text:</b><br /><ul style="text-align: left;"><li> <b>Introduction</b>: This section introduces the research topic, identifies the research question or problem, and provides background information to establish its significance.</li><li _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container"> <b>Literature Review (Optional): </b>This section discusses previous research related to your topic, summarizing relevant findings and highlighting gaps in knowledge that your research aims to address.</li><li _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container"> <b>Methodology:</b> Here you explain the methods used to conduct your research, including data collection techniques, analysis methods, and any tools or materials employed.</li><li _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container"> <b>Results:</b> This section presents the findings of your research in an objective manner. You might use tables, figures, or charts to illustrate your data.</li><li> <b>Discussion:</b> This section interprets your results, explaining their meaning and significance in relation to the research question and existing literature. You might discuss limitations of the study and implications for future research.</li></ul></div><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container"><b>Concluding Sections:</b><br /></div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container"><b>Conclusion:</b> This section summarizes the key findings of your research, reiterates its significance, and may draw broader conclusions or suggest future research directions.</li><li><b>References: </b>This section lists all the sources you cited in your research, formatted according to a specific style guide (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).</li></ul><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container" style="text-align: left;"><b>Additional Elements (Optional):</b><br /></div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container" style="text-align: left;"><b>Appendix:</b> This section can include supplementary information that is too lengthy or detailed for the main text, such as raw data, questionnaires, or code.</li><li><b>Acknowledgements:</b> This section is a brief note expressing gratitude to anyone who provided assistance with your research (e.g., advisor, participants).</li></ul><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container" style="text-align: left;"><br /> ................................................................................................................................................................</div><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container" style="text-align: left;"> </div><div _ngcontent-ng-c2834669928="" class="container" style="text-align: left;">Formatting:<br /><br /><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>    Use a consistent font style and size (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt).</li><li>    Maintain standard margins (e.g., 1 inch).</li><li>    Apply double line spacing for easier reading.</li><li>    Include page numbers.</li><li>    Use headings and subheadings to organize your content.</li></ul></div>

Research Methodology Layout of a Research Paper

 A typical research paper follows a specific structure to present information logically and ensure clarity for the reader. Preliminary Pages...

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Chi-square test for testing hypothesis of association

<p> What is a test of statistical significance?</p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Allows analysts to estimate confidence in the generalizability of results from a study.</li><li>Indicates risk of concluding a relationship in the population when there is no such relationship.</li><li>Statistically significant findings are not intrinsically significant or important.</li><li>The term significance' implies importance, but it's solely concerned with researcher's confidence in their findings.</li></ul><p>What is the level of statistical significance? </p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>The level of statistical significance is the risk of inferring a relationship between two variables in a population from which the sample was taken.</li><li>The maximum level of risk in business and managerial research is p < 0.05, meaning there are up to 5 chances in 100 of falsely concluding a relationship.</li><li>A significance level of p < 0.1 accepts the possibility that 10 out of 100 samples might show a relationship where none exists in the population.</li><li>• The risk of falsely inferring a relationship is greater when the risk is 1 in 10 (10 out of 100 when p < 0.1) than when the risk is 1 in 20 (5 out of 100 when p < 0.05).</li><li>For a more stringent test, the p < 0.01 level is chosen, allowing for a probability of only 1 in 100 that the results could have arisen by chance (sampling error).</li></ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlwCOvmdGkG5KST1g2hsPdRZa2QsOvFY4rgWWJZqiK4hAe6hDHRMU4_H_NBjQQT7YDfA4RxsHrEA9AWvBkFviZKPdeMCq5NR8UkbTN0Y1VHsXbME21IJBfMxPil4rbmp_VZqCq-xiWox87IVN1fb5c8iBSG9D_TksQH2F5UV_7IL5AE2VAfS5ZGSpFJDY/s532/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20084424.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="532" height="404" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlwCOvmdGkG5KST1g2hsPdRZa2QsOvFY4rgWWJZqiK4hAe6hDHRMU4_H_NBjQQT7YDfA4RxsHrEA9AWvBkFviZKPdeMCq5NR8UkbTN0Y1VHsXbME21IJBfMxPil4rbmp_VZqCq-xiWox87IVN1fb5c8iBSG9D_TksQH2F5UV_7IL5AE2VAfS5ZGSpFJDY/w640-h404/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20084424.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /><p>We can summarize the process of hypothesis testing as follows. This procedure is only for the purposes of illustrating the logic of hypothesis testing; </p> <p>1. Formulate the null hypothesis, <i>H</i>₀, and the alternative hypothesis, <i>H_a</i>, for the problem.</p> <p>2. Select a significance level, <i>α,</i> that defines the measure of a statistically significant deviation. (Typical values for <i>α</i> are 0.01 and 0.05.)</p> <p>3. Choose an appropriate test statistic for evaluating the hypothesis.</p> <p>4. Calculate the critical value, <i>c,</i> according to the test statistic and the significance level, <i>α</i>.</p> <p>5. Evaluate the data for the random variable and determine if it exceeds the critical value, <i>c</i>, for the test statistic. If so, then the null hypothesis should be rejected; if not, then the null hypothesis should not be rejected.</p><p></p><p><b> Chi-square test:</b><br /></p><p>The chi-square test of independence also known as the chi-square test of association which is used to determine the association between the categorical variables. It is considered as a non-parametric test. It is mostly used to test statistical independence.</p> <p>The chi-square test of independence is not appropriate when the categorical variables represent the pre-test and post-test observations. For this test, the data must meet the following requirements:</p> <ul><li>Two categorical variables</li><li>Relatively large sample size</li><li>Categories of variables (two or more)</li><li>Independence of observations</li></ul><p> </p><h2>Formula</h2> <p>The chi-squared test is done to check if there is any difference between the observed value and expected value. The formula for chi-square can be written as;</p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggRh-xNYp9WULSVcyGJbYi5femBnw64fuIpts8kF7ys0Ttj5eF7njiVwUDn6bdDmpPhcWmw0HSzCY2PzqjNnuWDWKIr74MsnMxx0Lb3ljs1-nZaDugFb7kAaQfL8XzGBQB8SqhXBVHzcwzRiV6q3lbWge5yzMw81ZTR8zLIxonipHlWHxACdzXf7MUzgs/s892/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-22-17%20Chi-Square%20Test%20How%20to%20Calculate%20Chi-square%20using%20Formula%20with%20Example.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="416" data-original-width="892" height="298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggRh-xNYp9WULSVcyGJbYi5femBnw64fuIpts8kF7ys0Ttj5eF7njiVwUDn6bdDmpPhcWmw0HSzCY2PzqjNnuWDWKIr74MsnMxx0Lb3ljs1-nZaDugFb7kAaQfL8XzGBQB8SqhXBVHzcwzRiV6q3lbWge5yzMw81ZTR8zLIxonipHlWHxACdzXf7MUzgs/w640-h298/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-22-17%20Chi-Square%20Test%20How%20to%20Calculate%20Chi-square%20using%20Formula%20with%20Example.png" width="640" /></a></div> Examples: <p></p><p><span style="font-weight: 400;">1. A survey on cars had conducted in 2011 and determined that 60% of car owners have </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">only one car, 28% have two cars, and 12% have three or more. Supposing that you have decided to conduct your own survey and have collected the data below, determine whether your data supports the results of the study.</span> </p><p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Use a significance level of 0.05. Also, given that, out of 129 car owners, 73 had one car and 38 had two cars.</span></p> <p><b>Solution:</b></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Let us state the null and alternative hypotheses.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">H₀: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars is 0.60, 0.28 and 0.12 respectively.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">H₁: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars does not match the proposed model.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">A Chi-Square goodness of fit test is appropriate because we are examining the distribution of a single categorical variable. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s tabulate the given information and calculate the required values.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8PaTPY915JKKWwCdEgxH1Xf1RV8F5TF8t3aZwF1OdbeYWSXWgZUmiqMqPuIidp6gJW2_ccd_SHfk2hQmH3kgwLJ7H9d8cR39Ic1h1nsTPFrj57RFoLT2sikyNCNsB0rIlPX0zzIeUR2JwUCWqpNVcVyRZaazQzOlVEHxMAp0jWIsTPwYa2BM8w0723tM/s850/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-23-37%20Chi-Square%20Test%20How%20to%20Calculate%20Chi-square%20using%20Formula%20with%20Example.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="296" data-original-width="850" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8PaTPY915JKKWwCdEgxH1Xf1RV8F5TF8t3aZwF1OdbeYWSXWgZUmiqMqPuIidp6gJW2_ccd_SHfk2hQmH3kgwLJ7H9d8cR39Ic1h1nsTPFrj57RFoLT2sikyNCNsB0rIlPX0zzIeUR2JwUCWqpNVcVyRZaazQzOlVEHxMAp0jWIsTPwYa2BM8w0723tM/w640-h222/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-23-37%20Chi-Square%20Test%20How%20to%20Calculate%20Chi-square%20using%20Formula%20with%20Example.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /><p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Therefore, χ²</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> = ∑(O_i</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> – E_i</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">)²</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">/E_i</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> = 0.7533</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s compare it to the chi-square value for the significance level 0.05. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The degrees for freedom = 3 – 1 = 2</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Using the table, the critical value for a 0.05 significance level with df = 2 is 5.99. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">That means that 95 times out of 100, a survey that agrees with a sample will have a χ²</span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> value of 5.99 or less. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The Chi-square statistic is only 0.7533, so we will accept the null hypothesis.</span></p><p></p><p>2. A certain casino game involves numbers between 1 and 32 that each have an associated color (red or black). The cross tabulation for the data is shown below.</p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYq-IWX-9ge9kqBna9QwLW5zzqpVTqyqGJ1ox4nW9aKmDzuPyAK4-_2oCRMGcJrw18_DtCSg2C6tFSKjE-jB7viWebfHPdPUZH01BrdGDdyu1OI7xO7zuTIbDNU2AvQDPAc2j8hFLotIH_kWxj0yqbe8ZfmDLFJ9Xz9GHjCmTq5-eo40yxapSamPbmbiw/s927/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-25-05%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="519" data-original-width="927" height="358" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYq-IWX-9ge9kqBna9QwLW5zzqpVTqyqGJ1ox4nW9aKmDzuPyAK4-_2oCRMGcJrw18_DtCSg2C6tFSKjE-jB7viWebfHPdPUZH01BrdGDdyu1OI7xO7zuTIbDNU2AvQDPAc2j8hFLotIH_kWxj0yqbe8ZfmDLFJ9Xz9GHjCmTq5-eo40yxapSamPbmbiw/w640-h358/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-25-05%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" width="640" /></a></div><p></p><p>Determine if color has any relation to evenness/oddness.</p> <blockquote dir="ltr">Solution: We can use hypothesis testing to determine whether such a relationship exists. Let's assume, as our null hypothesis, that color and evenness/oddness are not related, and we'll assume a significance level of α = 0.05. Note that the number of degrees of freedom, n, in this case is </blockquote> <p>_{<img alt="" height="27" src="https://cdn.4uc.org/gmzo/577/9770454/download/images/gmz9454x94719z6795016.gif" width="131" />}</p><p></p><p>Let's calculate the expected frequencies and place them below the observed values in the table. The expected frequency in each case is the product of the corresponding row and column totals divided by the grand total (32).</p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG1YBtDrYiXJDxXYPVtmDZ-UXrFKIRMnsUFkC2p_xnOJEBfIrLGukgOYcOjRx0TgNMMVpAbHZMzdGxFxNz-_iEqnwOix0R97kvmWt3oiX55EMs2FVF8dkFko8YZ4XxcV9xvfIRExmFMu0UthwrO0nvbZA8ts4RAQ86Rbyr0dX2-0lzDDeUdtn-tAAe4O8/s887/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-26-21%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="634" data-original-width="887" height="458" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG1YBtDrYiXJDxXYPVtmDZ-UXrFKIRMnsUFkC2p_xnOJEBfIrLGukgOYcOjRx0TgNMMVpAbHZMzdGxFxNz-_iEqnwOix0R97kvmWt3oiX55EMs2FVF8dkFko8YZ4XxcV9xvfIRExmFMu0UthwrO0nvbZA8ts4RAQ86Rbyr0dX2-0lzDDeUdtn-tAAe4O8/w640-h458/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-26-21%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /> Now, let's calculate the values for adding into the chi-square statistic. These component values are the squared differences between the observed and expected values divided by the expected values.<p></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7qxaIt-jOLunpTPecZd1jODsi1nuame2vRJv1eNjVkfTTJh87BEEtdlQxO1fM47MZnnCohJcRJZimxXHsKLayDYvZoEvT-7zegdxMTv96_xTxbbmVzLyR866HmmmfazN55hXUuQZIwnCEazu2LKeIVXtCpfiBy4qTwvZ0MIzWNvJXDJokx9riWPKech8/s927/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-27-49%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="405" data-original-width="927" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7qxaIt-jOLunpTPecZd1jODsi1nuame2vRJv1eNjVkfTTJh87BEEtdlQxO1fM47MZnnCohJcRJZimxXHsKLayDYvZoEvT-7zegdxMTv96_xTxbbmVzLyR866HmmmfazN55hXUuQZIwnCEazu2LKeIVXtCpfiBy4qTwvZ0MIzWNvJXDJokx9riWPKech8/w640-h280/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20at%2009-27-49%20How%20to%20Calculate%20the%20Chi-Square%20Statistic%20for%20a%20Cross%20Tabulation.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /> <p></p><p>We can now calculate our chi-square statistic.</p> <p> </p> <p>_{<img alt="" height="24" src="https://cdn.4uc.org/gmzo/577/9770454/download/images/gmz9454x29286z6795018.gif" width="259" />}</p> <p> </p> <p>From the chi-square table, we find that the critical value for one degree of freedom and 1 – <i>α</i> = 0.95 is 3.84. Thus, since 0.5 < 3.84 (or <i>χ</i>² < <i>c</i>), we can proceed on the assumption that our null hypothesis is correct--no relationship between color and evenness/oddness exists.</p>

Research Methodology Chi-square test for testing hypothesis of association

 What is a test of statistical significance? Allows analysts to estimate confidence in the generalizability of results from a study. Indicat...

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Bivariate analysis – Cross tabulations

<div>Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a time in order to uncover whether or not the two variables are related. <br /><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Exploring relationships between variables means searching for evidence that the variation in one variable coincides with variation in another variable. A variety of techniques is available for examining relationships, but their use depends on the nature of the two variables being analyzed.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1AFLefmVFg4gpUE5ezqA1pDDNJ9xc_3lPRYYYhVPXx1mBYR8R0AZyd4YFPoZQD151_mm1vgGQ0EnUqppYdUHyAQXfZY9VH0XqCriQBW7sAmH5DAMdWDewa8KrGG54aym67eL1uhIqQzxHStjvgQ4w7ohDXl4Wke1lWeaAGt6EegnIDJiVR5IlUfDnspg/s862/methods%20of%20bivariate%20analysis.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="576" data-original-width="862" height="428" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1AFLefmVFg4gpUE5ezqA1pDDNJ9xc_3lPRYYYhVPXx1mBYR8R0AZyd4YFPoZQD151_mm1vgGQ0EnUqppYdUHyAQXfZY9VH0XqCriQBW7sAmH5DAMdWDewa8KrGG54aym67eL1uhIqQzxHStjvgQ4w7ohDXl4Wke1lWeaAGt6EegnIDJiVR5IlUfDnspg/w640-h428/methods%20of%20bivariate%20analysis.png" width="640" /></a></div><h3> Contingency / <em>Cross Tabulation</em> Tables in Data Analysis</h3><ul><li>Contingency tables are flexible methods for analyzing relationships between variables.</li><li>They allow simultaneous analysis of two variables, examining relationships between them.</li><li>They are often used to include percentages for easier interpretation.</li></ul></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicu9jDCDUxq7aX6-fVNyBTkPvAv2Fahqg62LMIdBhxT6Xfzs1hnWyi9018vmRZyl_AFM6j3lsVa1S9Btsm41GhSV01rElrDg7LJNv5ivrARTXMcDvP7h9iWff4J4WDxiXBFE4ps1w9OB03pxx8resnsnmLayzhUtaUlFVCGc2RYVLZYmWA2xcGJW2FAII/s407/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20083123.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="350" data-original-width="407" height="550" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicu9jDCDUxq7aX6-fVNyBTkPvAv2Fahqg62LMIdBhxT6Xfzs1hnWyi9018vmRZyl_AFM6j3lsVa1S9Btsm41GhSV01rElrDg7LJNv5ivrARTXMcDvP7h9iWff4J4WDxiXBFE4ps1w9OB03pxx8resnsnmLayzhUtaUlFVCGc2RYVLZYmWA2xcGJW2FAII/w640-h550/Screenshot%202024-05-23%20083123.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><ul><li>Table 14.4 examines the relationship between gender and reasons for visiting the gym.</li><li>Percentages are calculated as a percentage of the total number in each column.</li><li>The presumed independent variable is presented as the column variable and the presumed dependent variable as the rows variable.</li><li>Contingency tables are used to search for patterns of association.</li><li>Females are more likely to visit the gym for weight loss and relaxation, while men are more likely to build strength. <br /></li></ul></div>

Research Methodology Bivariate analysis – Cross tabulations

Bivariate analysis is concerned with the analysis of two variables at a time in order to uncover whether or not the two variables are relate...

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Univariate analysis (frequency tables, bar charts, pie charts, percentages)

<div><p> Univariate Analysis Overview<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>A basic statistical data analysis technique.</li><li>Data contains only one variable, excluding cause and effect relationships.</li><li>Useful in identifying patterns in data.</li><li>Methods include mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and dispersion.</li><li>Univariate analysis is the simplest form of data analysis.</li><li>It involves summarizing data and identifying patterns.</li></ul><h3 class="nx lo fr be lp ny nz oa lt ob oc od lx mw oe of og na oh oi oj ne ok ol om on bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="1948" style="text-align: left;">HOW DO YOU CONDUCT UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS?</h3><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo mp mq mr ms mt mu mv mw mx my mz na nb nc nd ne nf ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="235d">Univariate analysis is conducted in many ways and most of these ways are of a descriptive nature. These are the Frequency Distribution Tables, Frequency Polygons, Histograms, Bar Charts and Pie Charts</p><h2 class="nx lo fr be lp ny nz oa lt ob oc od lx mw oe of og na oh oi oj ne ok ol om on bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="6638">Types of Univariate Analysis</h2><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo mp mq mr ms mt mu mv mw mx my mz na nb nc nd ne nf ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="83fd">Let us get into details here of the kind of analysis that is done to analyze univariate data.</p><h3 class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo mp mq mr ms mt mu mv mw mx my mz na nb nc nd ne nf ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="83fd" style="text-align: left;"><strong class="mn fs">1. Frequency distribution table</strong></h3><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">Frequency means how often something takes place. The observation frequency tells the number of times for the occurrence of an event. The frequency distribution table may show categorical or qualitative and numeric or quantitative variables. The distribution gives a snapshot of the data and lets you find out the patterns.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhumVzdV1yxSLpKzRkBgXh4x4IqNEn9ZFXcfr-KBbnIjnVHXFbTffhyphenhyphen7b0-4MACc2TN1g7d44sVTbU0mRgzWao2wuca4E0cxntCke0IxKYTHyteUD3dDOSXjzbdnbkoAKYww5jit9nZcPnqO85LugX8hBKtMNxHY8d9WUva0aI6SZ4NeKmBeWtDeOG6t0/s512/Frequency%20Table.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="248" data-original-width="512" height="310" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhumVzdV1yxSLpKzRkBgXh4x4IqNEn9ZFXcfr-KBbnIjnVHXFbTffhyphenhyphen7b0-4MACc2TN1g7d44sVTbU0mRgzWao2wuca4E0cxntCke0IxKYTHyteUD3dDOSXjzbdnbkoAKYww5jit9nZcPnqO85LugX8hBKtMNxHY8d9WUva0aI6SZ4NeKmBeWtDeOG6t0/w640-h310/Frequency%20Table.png" width="640" /></a></div><p></p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: center;">Table 1<br /></p><h3 style="text-align: left;">2. Diagrams</h3><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">Diagrams are among the most frequently used methods of displaying quantitative data. Their chief advantage is that they are relatively easy to interpret and understand.<br /><br />If you are working with nominal or ordinal variables, the bar chart and the pie chart are two of the easiest methods to use.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c"> 2.1. <strong class="mn fs">Bar chart</strong></p><p>The bar chart is represented in the form of rectangular bars. The graph will compare various categories. The graph could be plotted vertically or these could be plotted horizontally. In maximum cases, the bar will be plotted vertically. The horizontal or the x-axis will represent the category and the vertical y-axis represents the category’s value. The bar graph looks at the data set and makes comparisons. </p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSXd7Z1aFboILUuhBFJl10qMLhAlhIpWy1g_3A_rayjbRr9roe82IzwtsfM9VSBMI1WqYAaxRg6eiLT3lQNfBPyjSrHt1ePNP2ZazkBLESizZuPKCv3fquF53oyGIJFMZQivfVJ_yuX4tgW8hNuCWUjilRp2qi-7Q2Ftiqoyo37Y95_4lWIG8Q7vYw_yI/s1100/0%20W2L2MzhuoFnJFcxm.webp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="611" data-original-width="1100" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSXd7Z1aFboILUuhBFJl10qMLhAlhIpWy1g_3A_rayjbRr9roe82IzwtsfM9VSBMI1WqYAaxRg6eiLT3lQNfBPyjSrHt1ePNP2ZazkBLESizZuPKCv3fquF53oyGIJFMZQivfVJ_yuX4tgW8hNuCWUjilRp2qi-7Q2Ftiqoyo37Y95_4lWIG8Q7vYw_yI/w640-h356/0%20W2L2MzhuoFnJFcxm.webp" width="640" /></a></div> 2.2. <strong class="mn fs">Pie Chart</strong><p></p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="0299">The pie chart displays the data in a circular format. The graph is divided into pieces where each piece is proportional to the fraction of the complete category. So each slice of the pie in the pie chart is relative to categories size. The entire pie is 100 percent and when you add up each of the pie slices then it should also add up to 100.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="785e">Pie charts are used to understand how a group is broken down into small pieces.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c"> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQF7S9TmqMLXhpgopXRbmn-Zs5aTM6NJcjjNCnSs9sF1Scvg0ukSdlXONQdNvpz4q9puctdWdqEPcM9u7nJ_5-olLAx29P2KkmdmfRZOjdE7KpvN9fm3qfpxLuVdyKhVSUBEDLhyZ79RPhR-OjIC0mLL-ioJIsc1gizhbf8qq1WlS1nxc3GA2hrCX5RQY/s533/pi%20chart.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="425" data-original-width="533" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQF7S9TmqMLXhpgopXRbmn-Zs5aTM6NJcjjNCnSs9sF1Scvg0ukSdlXONQdNvpz4q9puctdWdqEPcM9u7nJ_5-olLAx29P2KkmdmfRZOjdE7KpvN9fm3qfpxLuVdyKhVSUBEDLhyZ79RPhR-OjIC0mLL-ioJIsc1gizhbf8qq1WlS1nxc3GA2hrCX5RQY/s320/pi%20chart.png" width="320" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c"> 2.3. <strong class="mn fs">Histogram</strong></p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="fff7">The histogram is the same as a bar chart which analysis the data counts. The bar graph will count against categories and the histogram displays the categories into bins. The bin is capable of showing the number of data positions, the range, or the interval.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: center;"> </p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvT0NawfTQePyje12BjTsphJjlTM4zq_NOcFADnawa2ejW94VkUYqU3xv4KmtgODP2F_WcrWipIJ-Wk5rLYClpGGdrtK38C7uYXDL_syyWNtAbzchzGEZW1mnDjKjqQ5te-VxF-p9VV8QTzUjtvCV9ZFb_ypjt4FxsdUJ4-cONK2HSx_mHhS2dIZO5fWc/s516/bar%20graph.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="441" data-original-width="516" height="273" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvT0NawfTQePyje12BjTsphJjlTM4zq_NOcFADnawa2ejW94VkUYqU3xv4KmtgODP2F_WcrWipIJ-Wk5rLYClpGGdrtK38C7uYXDL_syyWNtAbzchzGEZW1mnDjKjqQ5te-VxF-p9VV8QTzUjtvCV9ZFb_ypjt4FxsdUJ4-cONK2HSx_mHhS2dIZO5fWc/s320/bar%20graph.png" width="320" /></a></p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: center;"> Fig:4</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c"> If you are displaying an interval/ratio variable, a histogram is likely to be employed. Figure 4, which was also generated by SPSS, uses the same data and categories as Table 1.<br /><br /> As with the bar chart, the bars represent the relative size of each of the age bands. However, note that, with the histogram, there is no space between the bars, whereas there is a space between the bars of a bar chart.</p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">Histograms are produced in quantitative data analysis, for interval/ratio variables, whereas bar charts are produced for nominal and ordinal variables.</p><h3 class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: left;">3. Measures of central tendency<br /></h3><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">Measures of central tendency encapsulate in one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values three different forms of average are recognized. </p><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">The arithmetic mean, the average of a distribution, is used to represent the average age of a sample. In fig-4, the mean is 33.6, indicating a nearly 34-year-old average age. <br /><br />The median, the midpoint of a distribution, is less affected by outliers and can be used for both interval/ratio and ordinal variables. In the case of fig-4, the median is 31.<br /><br />The mode, the value most frequently occurring in a distribution, is 28 and can be used for all types of variables. These measures help in understanding the distribution and its characteristics. <br /></p><h3 class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c" style="text-align: left;"> 4. Measures of Dispersion in Sample Analysis<br /></h3><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Measures of dispersion can help draw contrasts between similar distributions of values.</li><li>The range, the difference between the maximum and minimum value in a distribution, is the most common method.</li><li>The range for cardiovascular equipment is 64 minutes, while for weights machines it is 48 minutes.</li><li>Outliers can influence the range, as seen in the fig-5</li><li>Standard deviation, the average variation around the mean, is another measure of dispersion.</li><li>The standard deviation for cardiovascular equipment is 9.9 minutes, while for weights equipment it is 8 minutes.</li><li>Outliers can affect the standard deviation, but their impact is offset by dividing by the number of values in the distribution.</li></ul><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLHOoeAZRgzWDY7J6GrHgLWq4NnXJNwieebJI2_uUnqiOR8HYJQ9Iv_ihIIEebAnhZkRuYvvG-iZwh1MYMAKdSD3dT7Ig0MBA-6_Pz0ENNPu7jdPJDx-WjSaY7Jqm7FnTBWhBkElvn-53of8qPqwlkcvWub6L2cpQ2dHdfbPB0H3Aa9hg1WaNSlaJrZLA/s1062/Box%20Plot.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="723" data-original-width="1062" height="436" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLHOoeAZRgzWDY7J6GrHgLWq4NnXJNwieebJI2_uUnqiOR8HYJQ9Iv_ihIIEebAnhZkRuYvvG-iZwh1MYMAKdSD3dT7Ig0MBA-6_Pz0ENNPu7jdPJDx-WjSaY7Jqm7FnTBWhBkElvn-53of8qPqwlkcvWub6L2cpQ2dHdfbPB0H3Aa9hg1WaNSlaJrZLA/w640-h436/Box%20Plot.png" width="640" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: center;">Figure-5<br /></div><br /><div><p class="pw-post-body-paragraph ml mm fr mn b mo oo mq mr ms op mu mv mw oq my mz na or nc nd ne os ng nh ni fk bj" data-selectable-paragraph="" id="393c">Boxplot Analysis in Data Analysis<br /></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li>Boxplot is a popular tool for displaying interval/ratio variables.</li><li>It provides indication of central tendency (median) and dispersion (range).</li><li>It also identifies outliers.</li><li>Example: Boxplot for gym usage: Outlier: case 41.</li><li>Box represents middle 50% of users.</li><li>Upper line indicates greatest use within 50%.</li><li>Lower line indicates least use within 50%.</li><li>Median line indicates median.</li><li>Lines upwards and downwards indicate usage levels.</li><li>Boxplots display central tendency and dispersion.</li><li>Box and median are closer to the bottom end of the distribution, suggesting less variation below the median.</li></ul></div>

Research Methodology Univariate analysis (frequency tables, bar charts, pie charts, percentages)

 Univariate Analysis Overview A basic statistical data analysis technique. Data contains only one variable, excluding cause and effect relat...

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AP RCET 2024 Question Papers With Preliminary Keys

<h2 class="pageheading">Master Question Papers With Preliminary Keys for APRCET 2023-24</h2> <div class="clearfix"></div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">02/05/2024 (Thursday) Session-I: 9.00am to 11.00am</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_tblPaper1"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 04 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Buddhist Studies </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bx9nIVCbRyfEVVBVxPhP2UNjwqB7k1fj/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 13 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> International and Area Studies </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1XnU2DHHBYrCk7ShXZoGz4addAnvCrPEt/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 16 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Library and Information Science </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ioGKpz9iIg_DX_rWvmmx7IgqWVxgygDF/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 21 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Philosophy </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1peYJPu2wG36ePmPW9r_OP-HfY4SEgbdO/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 22 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Physical Education </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1l_AI3dmTtbLJIoIqwPoogoNdUMF1DV9V/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 26 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Public Administration </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VHPLE7oySQOnDky5VvAOwinkAmaeD8sR/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 38 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Botany </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1RTRRBJhtAjTaiELVitqyLkUZyDSxz8cX/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 39 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Chemical Sciences </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1lNP1r8UweF1iHlAOAfkXede8acmHqCWB/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 40 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Computer Science & Applications </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1k77oSzvbdYYRvl-Uxh07te-QHu19XGdN/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 58 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Mechanical Engineering </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1y_vrZ5qwGLt_N5J9U14mn1XKjn06Hk-8/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"><span style="font-size: 15px;"> 02/05/2024 (Thursday) Session-II: 2.30pm to 4.30pm</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table1"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 07 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Education </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ciit49RYsFbCDYyeXHGyV1qeDwSliSqU/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 10 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Folklore </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rylKDh_M0Gav1xm88DyPHaNAbewqKHSU/view?usp=sharing">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 14 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Journalism and Mass Communication </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/178F_98UNI_OcwIrfwybjXaIWeHF4ks1V/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 20 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Performing Arts </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/13Tg-segRaYv4Yzf7LM6ZfTUzKoB7rgAb/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 32 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Sociology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CsXnZCO1vstUp1GdbSy5j-_0GAwGcRRw/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 41 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Electronics and Instrumentation </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HJjuqtjOjysh1uIYWE6E5GI0vlyxW3Si/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 44 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Geology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1IyqDNDPSL4HAgyk06NJ4XXBLQm9R4vZm/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 45 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Home Science </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1DmUAfAX4SIF9h1X4eFdpV-9EtZwUv7aT/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">03-05-2024 (Friday) Session-I: 9.00am to 11.00am</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table2"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 05 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Commerce </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1emXcX-ojmLLK_X87KGrjVdEH3VlVchVZ/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 08 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> English </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ytV-nJrgMAeuQje-0pTwkvaJhNTdgMpe/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 30 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Sanskrit </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/135ra2gA3gZ2M10utRfR7hHGLG23XbGcF/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 34 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Tourism Management </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1WEiDakXHyY-0hTbqYzTyhsTlqhlKjMvw/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 43 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Geography </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/16IKM1lW_ZUhhQaNvIjLOVLhJmpOzaS1C/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 46 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Material Science & NanoTechnology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uuud3ZralutpDc1gwlyPgifm1Pdzs8b4/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 50 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Statistics </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Cz-AebddQSPEXFkq1ur28qdUu7yCGLBm/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 52 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Civil Engineering </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1O02qAGiM63jwRSRqXuK8hArA6qs0ltJL/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 57 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Food Technology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cUSsxhDgOifN4FibaGXZ6Dzxz5oJtFc9/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 62 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Bio Technology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1LDMt-cloLBgCoYWIk6-SJxsJx8lg2QIV/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">03-05-2024 (Friday) Session-II: 2.30pm to 4.30pm</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table3"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 09 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Fine Arts </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1o6ljN1pxD9QhcydG82aqmKttNUGBS-kt/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 11 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Hindi </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FFnlTNIiXKWnPmpSroQUjI_ke7LUOw3o/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 12 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> History </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1bKOz-OKn7pyzhJ5heQUsWtSLG7yu6eFD/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 17 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Lingustics </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CsrN9wnl9OOzmQEJ7KHQrwfZ5a3CVOEa/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 25 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> psychology </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/12RigXvN09wJysuDRIU_qg1LmezHpaZE5/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 36 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Applied Life Sciences </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1W_4j92SLeP0TaFra3ZZkZQa5upsNynjF/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 48 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Physics </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SO7fgXmeO0mZ1kLE0YbYLkdLrg59BcUg/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 59 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Metallurgical Engineering </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Wa3oKdoHMqyjYGCEEs9_Biyp9RgZBeic/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 65 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Mahatma Jyothirao Phule Studies </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Hum-EdCAJjAn1Cv4GTxMgEPSJYhfjJBN/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 67 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Geo Engineering </td> <td> <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SeT9r_rYV2FF1EeoDXfI5Vj40SToGkSS/view?usp=sharing" target="_blank">View</a> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">04-05-2024 (Saturday) Session-I: 9.00am to 11.00am </span></h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table4"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 01 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Adult Education </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 02 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Anthropology </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 18 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Management </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 27 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Studies </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 29 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Rural Development </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 42 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Environmental Science </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 47 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Mathematics </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 53 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Chemical Engineering </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 56 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Electronics & Communication Engineering </td> <td> View </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-12"> <div class="row" style="margin: 0px;"> <div class="table-responsive" style="text-align: center;"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">04-05-2024 (Saturday) Session-II: 2.30pm to 4.30pm</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table5"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 06 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Economics </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 15 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Law </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 19 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Music </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 23 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Political Science </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 49 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Sericulture </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 51 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Zoology </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 54 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Computer Science and Engineering </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 28 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Dr. Babu Jagajivan Ram Chair </td> <td> View </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> </div> </div> </div> <h6 class="pageheading"> <span style="font-size: 15px;">05-05-2024 (Sunday) Session-I: 9.00am to 11.00am</span> </h6> <table class="table table-bordered table-striped" id="RCETPageContent_Table6"><tbody><tr> <th style="width: 10%;"> Subject Id </th> <th> Subject </th> <th style="width: 10%;"> <br /></th> </tr> <tr> <td> 31 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Social Work </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 33 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Telugu </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 35 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Women's Studies </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 37 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Bio Chemistry </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 55 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Electrical and Electronics Engineering </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 60 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Marine Engineering </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 61 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Pharmacy </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 66 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Urdu </td> <td> View </td> </tr> <tr> <td> 68 </td> <td class="subjectclass"> Meteorology and Physical Oceanography </td> <td> View</td></tr></tbody></table>

questions papers AP RCET 2024 Question Papers With Preliminary Keys

Master Question Papers With Preliminary Keys for APRCET 2023-24 ...

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