Prior to British rule, India's education system was primarily based on indigenous models like Gurukul and Madrassas, emphasizing religious, philosophical, and practical knowledge. The British introduced a modern, Western-style education system, which coexisted with traditional systems for a time. This period saw the establishment of universities and the gradual expansion of formal education, alongside efforts to address literacy and educational disparities.
Periods of development of Indian education
India was a land of wonder, and the fame of Indian culture, wealth, religions, philosophies, art, architecture, as well as its educational practices, had spread far and wide.
Indian society cannot be a better place to live and progress for the development of the country if its participants are not educated.
Education empowers each individual to understand the constructive possibilities of living and also how to contribute more to society for the benefit of all. Without education, there would be significant obstacles to all the development that took place and the evolution of Indian education is commonly divided into the following eras:
1.Pre-Independence era (before 1947).
- Vedic era (3000B.C. to 500 B.C.);
- Buddhist era (500 B.C. to 1200 A.D.);
- Jainism era (5th –7th century / 6th B.C.)
- Muslim era (1200 AD. to 1700 A.D.); and
- British era (Pre independence era 1800 A.D to 1947).
4) Education system during Mughal period
During the Mughal period, there wasn’t a significant effort to universalize the educational system, but there was a focus on spreading Islamic education. From the early 16th to the mid-19th century, patronage was extended to men of arts and literature. Muslim educational institutions were known as MAKTABA, and primary schools were attached to MOSQUES or run in private houses, known as MADRASA. Hindus and Muslims studied each other’s languages and because of this interaction led to the formation of a new language called URDU. The Mughal education system was primarily religious in character, but Sher Shah Suri, a ruler was a great patron of education and learning. Although the Mughal period didn’t contribute on the education must for Indian society, but there is attention which is given to repairing existing educational structure.
4.1 Aims of Education during Mughal period
The education systems of ancient India and the Mughal Empire exhibited several key differences due to variations in time, culture, and societal needs. Education during the Muslim era was not a concerted and planned activity but rather a voluntary and spontaneous growth. Muslim rule fostered a cross-cultural influence in the country by establishing an educational system where Hindus and Muslims could study side by side. As a result, Muslim education had several distinctive features, as courses of study were both broadened and influenced by humanistic values. The Mughal education system encompassed a wide range of subjects, including Islamic studies, Persian and Arabic languages, poetry, literature, music, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.
4.2 Educational Curriculum during Mughal period
The Islamic education system suffered from several limitations. However, its curriculum was Quaranic-centered, and children were required to memorize the Holy Quran. This practice has preserved the book in its original form, making it a unique feature of Muslim education. Therefore, elementary-level students focus more on memorizing the Quran with proper pronunciation. Higher education was also a focal point during the Muslim period. At the higher education level, subjects such as history, philosophy, grammar, and law were taught. However, the medium of instruction was Arabic and Persian, and the education system was heavily influenced by Islamic culture.
4.3 Mughal educational teaching method
The methods of teaching used during the Mughal period also contributed to a form of social discrimination, as there was a separate provision for women’s education. While girls were allowed to attend ‘maktabs’ for primary education, they were not permitted to go to ‘Madrasas’ for higher education. Efforts were made to establish institutions for imparting education to women during the Mughal period. However, religious perceptions hindered success in this regard. Nevertheless, royal and elite families arranged for the education of women at home by hiring teachers.
The society during the Mughal era can be divided into different classes based on privileges and financial stability. Legal education was also provided in Madrasas, with Islamic law based on the teachings of the Quran and rituals/traditions. The tradition of education in both Maktabs and Madrasas was oral in the sense that teachers delivered lectures to students. However, students in Madrasas were also encouraged to read books. Educational methods included storytelling, discussions, teaching, training, and directed research. The core educational teaching-learning structure is outlined below.
- Memorization: Learner has to memorize the Quran and Persian grammar;
- Oral instruction: Teachers used oral instruction for educational process;
- Rewards and punishments: Teachers have power to use both rewards and punishments base on situation;
- Writing: Students are train to learned to write the alphabet and practice writing;
5. Role of Christian missionaries in Indian education
By the mid-19th century, missionaries established a distribution/diffusion hypothesis. Their aim was to make schools spiritual and religious centers, fostering learning. Through education, they hoped to eradicate practices and behaviors among natives such as idol worship, polytheism, bigotry, polygamy, and many superstitions considered uncivilized. Their ultimate goal was to proselytize the native population and disprove the falsehood of native religions.
Christian missionaries also became involved in addressing the welfare of untouchables and women’s discrimination in society. They held liberal ideas about education, with one of their most significant aims being the social uplift of those belonging to the lower class. They rendered valuable service to the cause of education in India, and their efforts led to the establishment of the first missionary college at SERAMPORE in 1818. The Bishop’s College was founded in CALCUTTA in 1820. Missionaries heavily invested in setting up their institutions in India. However, there have been several articulations and re-articulations of their identity in the Indian education system.
5.1. East India Company’s Contributions to Education
The East India Company began using slave labor and transporting enslaved people. As a trading and profit-making company, it initially showed no interest in promoting education for the first 60 years. However, in 1793 A.D., on the occasion of the renewal of the East India Company’s Charter, some individuals in England attempted to compel the Company to allocate a portion of its Indian revenues to the education of Indians.
Twenty years passed, and during the renewal of the Company’s Charter, a fractional portion of its revenues was directed towards educating the people of India in 1813. At that time, there were only two educational institutions in India: Calcutta Madrasa and the Benares Hindu Sanskrit College. Officials of the East India Company also played a crucial role in the spread of education. In 1781, Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of India, founded the Calcutta Madrasa. Although modern education began in India under British rule, before the British arrived, India had its own educational systems like the Gurukula and the Madrasas. The Indian Universities Act of 1904 marked a major reform in the Indian education system. However, there are only three agents of modern education in India.
- East India Company;
- Christian missionaries; and
- Indian intellectuals and reformers.
To provide education for the Indians, the East India Company began to establish institutions, recognizing that education teaches individuals to overcome daily obstacles in life with ease and comfort. The Charter Act of 1813, officially known as the East India Company Act, assigned the responsibility of Indian education to the company by the British Parliament. This Act marked the first step towards making education an objective of the government, implying the continuation of British Rule in India.
Under the Charter Act of 1813, INR 1 lakh per year was allocated to education. However, this Act had three major goals: to maintain control over the company for another 20 years, to promote and support Christian missionaries, and to continue the program of territorial expansion. The power of this act increased the authority of the Courts in India over the European British and the power of the probationary government.
5.1..2 Government of India Resolution 1913
Despite the acknowledgment that the education system of a country plays a vital role in empowering its citizens, India’s traditional education system and educational institutions suffered a significant setback after the fall of the British Empire due to political in the country. In 1913, the government passed a resolution in which it declined to take on the burden of mandatory education but adopted the objective of eradicating illiteracy. It advised provincial governments to swiftly offer free basic education to the more underprivileged and backward sectors. This resolution is known as the Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913. The key points of the Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913 laid the foundation for subsequent educational reforms in India and contributed to the growth and modernization of the education system. The resolution refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education but accepted the policy of removing illiteracy.
5.2.Indian Education Commission in 1882
The British Empire took away administration from the company and transferred it to the crown. In 1882, the British Empire decided that it was necessary to assess the Indian education system and eliminate any defects that had crept into it. For this purpose, Lord Ripon appointed the Indian Education Commission on February 3, 1882, under the chairmanship of William Hunter, a member of the executive council of the viceroy.
The Hunter Commission of 1882 recommended that the medium of primary education should be the mother tongue. There are several recommendations were made in the Hunter Education Commission to facilitate proper education, even for backward classes. Among the recommendations by the Hunter Commission of 1882, one of the major suggestions was that special care should be taken to advance the education of girls and women. The commission aimed to improve the Indian education system by developing proper infrastructure, enhancing primary education, and adopting a policy of religious neutrality.
Wardha System of Education 1937
The Wardha Education Conference, held on October 22 and 23, 1937, marked an all-India National Educational Conference in Wardha. During the conference, it was resolved to accept Mahatma Gandhi’s proposal for the implementation of free and compulsory education for seven years through the medium of the mother tongue. Gandhi, along with other prominent educationists, including those present at the conference, piloted the resolutions. The main features of the Wardha Scheme encompassed the medium of instruction and the provision of free education. Dr. Zakir Hussain was appointed as the chairman of the committee tasked with preparing the national education scheme and subsequently submitted the first comprehensive national education proposal. The scheme is also deemed non-violent, as it ensures that individuals do not deprive others of their livelihood.
The underlying idea behind promoting the Wardha Scheme was the expansion of education to all regions of the country, with a focus on national integration. However, the scheme faced negative psychological effects as World War II erupted immediately after its initiation in 1939, impacting the expansion of education across the nation. Despite these challenges, the Wardha Scheme held an optimistic scope, aiming to build self-reliant, educated individuals in both cities and villages of India, which was considered a highly prudent decision. The central concept of the scheme emphasized imparting education through some industry or vocation, with a basic craft serving as the focal point of instruction.
6. Transformation of Indian Education System
The first National Policy on the education of independent India was implemented in 1968 in response to the recommendations of the Kothari Commission. The second National Education Policy was implemented in 1986, marking a gap of two decades. The new education policy was adopted by the government of India in 2023. Notably, the 10+2 structure has been fully eliminated in the new education policy. This is known as new educational curriculum, now structured as 5+3+3+4. This means that the first segment covers primary to the second grade, the second portion spans from the third to the fifth grade, the third part encompasses the sixth to eighth grade, and the final segment is from the ninth to the 12th grade.
- 1948 – The 1st commission, University Education Commission, was set up;
- 1952 – The Secondary Education Commission was established;
- 1964-1966 – The Indian Education Commission was introduced;
- 1968 – 1st National Education Policy came up;
- 1986 – A new policy was formulated;
- 1992 – The previous education policy was modified;
- 2005 – The 1986 education policy was again modified;
- 2020 – The new National Education Policy (NEP) was passed by the cabinet
After India gained independence, a new chapter in education policy was adopted by the Constitution of India. Even the education system became the full responsibility of both state and central governments. However, a number of problems and challenges have surfaced in the country due to the diverse character of Indian society created by British policies. The government has established education commissions to address these challenges, and recommend comprehensive policies for these problems, also propose improvements to the education system and social development. Therefore, education policy has played an immensely important role in the development of the educational system and the social functioning structure. Since education policies reflect the approaches of those in power toward society, they have a close social impact on the goals and strategies of the existing education system at all levels of development.
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