Prior to British rule, India's education system was primarily based on indigenous models like Gurukul and Madrassas, emphasizing religious, philosophical, and practical knowledge. The British introduced a modern, Western-style education system, which coexisted with traditional systems for a time. This period saw the establishment of universities and the gradual expansion of formal education, alongside efforts to address literacy and educational disparities.
Periods of development of Indian education
India was a land of wonder, and the fame of Indian culture, wealth, religions, philosophies, art, architecture, as well as its educational practices, had spread far and wide.
Indian society cannot be a better place to live and progress for the development of the country if its participants are not educated.
Education empowers each individual to understand the constructive possibilities of living and also how to contribute more to society for the benefit of all. Without education, there would be significant obstacles to all the development that took place and the evolution of Indian education is commonly divided into the following eras:
1.Pre-Independence era (before 1947).
- Vedic era (3000B.C. to 500 B.C.);
- Buddhist era (500 B.C. to 1200 A.D.);
- Jainism era (5th –7th century / 6th B.C.)
- Muslim era (1200 AD. to 1700 A.D.); and
- British era (Pre independence era 1800 A.D to 1947).
1) Education during Vedic Period
The education system that first evolved in ancient India is known as the ‘Vedic’ education system. This education was based on the ‘Vedas,’ and as a result, it was given the name ‘Vedic Educational System.’ This system possesses unique characteristics, because as the ‘SUTRAS’ were restricted in their influence over many domains of study. Consequently, education was confined only to the upper castes, which also known as BRAHMACHARIS.
During this time, the educational system that prevailed differed significantly from contemporary approaches. It was not accessible to all; instead, it focused more on fostering culture, traditions, and practices that guided and encouraged humanity.
The demand for education came from a limited section of society, and there was no need for an elaborate organizational structure for education. The education system evolved gradually, concentrating on the holistic development of the individual by addressing both the inner and outer self. Therefore, the foundation of Indian culture lies in the Vedas, which are four in number.
- Rig-Veda,
- Samveda,
- Yajurveda, and
- Athareveda
Apart from the aforementioned, some educational research has subdivided the Vedic Education period into the Brahmin Period, Upanishads Period, Sutra (Hymn) Period, etc. However, throughout these periods, there was a predominance of the Vedas, and there was no significant change in the aims and ideals of education. During the Vedic period, the majority of the upper castes, comprising Brahmins or Kshatriyas, received their education in a unique system called GURUKULAM. Students underwent their education by residing with their preceptors in forests, far removed from cities, towns, or villages.
The lives of the students, known as SHISYAS, were very rigorous and demanding. The educational process was largely monopolized by the Brahmins, as they constituted a small section of society. According to historians, the Indian education system in urban learning centers became increasingly visible between 500 BCE to 400 CE. Physical education held significance as a curricular area for pupils.
1.2 Aims of education in Vedic period
The main objective of Vedic education was the development of physical, moral, spiritual, and intellectual powers to achieve salvation. Overall, the aim of education was the complete realization of self and the freedom of the soul. Despite this, the core aims of education were categorized into four sections:
- Realize the supreme: This method is to achieve Supreme Consciousness (Brahman);
- Develop powers: This approach is to develop physical, moral, and intellectual powers;
- Attain salvation: This process is to achieve salvation through education; and
- Inculcate piety: This method is to instill a spirit of piety and righteousness.
Ancient Indian education originated from the Vedas, serving as the primary source of Indian philosophy of life. This educational system played a crucial role in Indian society by promoting celibacy, control over the senses, and purity of life. Consequently, during this period, the method of teaching was inherently known as psychological in nature.
The curriculum during the Vedic period was predominantly centered on the teaching of Vedas and Vedic literature, imparting spiritual and moral lessons. Physical education was also included, where students needed to learn archery, wrestling, hunting, dancing, etc.
The Vedic education system emphasized practical knowledge learning. The syllabus covered subjects ranging from spiritual to materialistic knowledge, including Vedas, Vedic grammar, arithmetic, knowledge of gods, knowledge of the absolute, knowledge of ghosts, astronomy, logic, philosophy, ethics, conduct, etc. However, students spent most of their time in self-study, thinking, and meditation.
1.4. Methods of Instruction during Vedic period
There was no single method of instruction was adopted and they faces many challenges and opportunities, such as improving access and quality.
The Vedic system of education was characterized by cordiality and the pursuit of the highest truth and supreme knowledge. This process aimed at leading individuals from unreality to reality, darkness to light, and death to immortality. In this system, perception served as a direct method of learning, along with lectures, dialogues, debates, discussions, and question-and-answer sessions.
During the Vedic period, the question-and-answer method and discussions were common and story-telling also adopted according to the need. Students would pose questions based on their needs, and the Guru would then provide explanations.
The Vedic system outlined mainly three steps of learning to follow.
- Sravana: In this approach, students listen to the text as it is spoken by their teacher, known as the Guru, ensuring that knowledge is conserved and transmitted to the upcoming generation.
- Manana: It means to internalize or assimilate what was given to the student. Therefore, this process is known for deliberation and reflection on the topic.
- Nididhyasana (Meditation): This is truth realized and attended, and it has to be considered indispensable for the realization of supreme reality.
Teachers were a highly honored class, esteemed even by kings, as the ultimate aim of education was not merely to acquire knowledge for preparation in this life but for the complete realization of self and the liberation of the soul from the chains of both present and future existence. Therefore, the ‘ACHARYA’ (Teacher/Guru) was the focal point of all learning, situated in natural surroundings.
The age limit for ‘UPANAYAN’ (Student/Siksha) was determined by them, respectively, with Brahmin children at the age of 8, Kshatriyas at 11, and Vaishyas at 12. The teacher was accepting very limited number of students because moral fitness and unimpeachable conduct of the pupils were main criteria for admission.
Teachers (ACHARYA) provided physical, materialistic, and spiritual knowledge to their students, taking full responsibility for the development of children’s personalities and characters.
In the Vedic period, the inculcation of social and civic duties was one of the core responsibilities for teachers, as they believed it was necessary for a better future life. Therefore, in the process of education, teachers are most important components, because as the teacher provides physical, materialistic, and spiritual knowledge. They (Guru/Teachers) also satisfies the curiosity and needs of students, acting as their spiritual father and taking care of them in the same manner as a father cares for his son.
2) Buddhism period of education
Buddhism originated as a phenomenon within Hinduism and gave rise to various offshoots of Hindu philosophy. The Buddhist period of education in India spanned from 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.
During this time, the main subjects of Buddhist education included spinning, weaving, cloth printing, tailoring, accountancy, painting, Ayurveda, and surgery. These teachings held immense significance, serving as a source of inspiration for both individual and social development.
Throughout this period, India experienced a high level of development in literature, philosophy, arts, commerce, agriculture, and methods of warfare. The entire educational system was overseen by monks, providing for both religious and secular forms of education. It is likely that the practices of Buddhist education varied in different countries and at different times, according to educationists.
2.1. Buddhism aims of education
Buddhism’s system of education did not differ significantly from that of the Vedic age, as the primary aim remained the preparation for a good and moral life.
Religious education held the highest priority, with concerted efforts directed towards fostering social integrity, morality, piety, humility, and virtuous qualities. These values were not only emphasized but also institutionalized, making education accessible to all. Consequently, a practical and region-specific education system emerged, catering to the common people and contributing significantly to the development of education, attracting individuals from all sections of society.
As a result, the teachings of Buddhism in this context can be distilled into three major points, often referred to as:
- Discipline;
- Meditation; and
- Wisdom.
The Buddhist system is well-known for ushering in the golden age of India’s culture and civilization with the rise of Buddhism in the country. Progress permeated all aspects of civilization under the influence of Buddhism, and the education system placed importance on both occupational and technical dimensions. Students were exposed to a comprehensive approach, encompassing both theoretical and practical methods.
The educational process was structured into two stages: primary and higher education. Primary education focused on imparting skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic, while higher education covered subjects such as religion, philosophy, Ayurveda, and military training. Importantly, individuals had the freedom to choose their subjects without any restrictions and medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the people.
2.3 Role of the Teacher during Buddhism period
In the Buddhist period, there were no organized Gurukuls; instead, education was imparted through Monasteries and Viharas. The Monk (teacher) bore full responsibility for the education, clothing, food, and residence of the student monk. The teacher, usually a monk, had the duty of maintaining proper academic standards and decorum within the Viharas. Rules and regulations applied uniformly to all groups and members within a Viharas, regardless of their status or standing. The teacher was also responsible for providing medical treatment to the student whenever he fell ill. During this period, teachers played a crucial role in assisting the Bhikshus (students) by imparting instruction on the following factors, which is also known as noble eightfold path.
- Right View / Understanding;
- Right Intention / Thought;
- Right Speech;
- Right Action;
- Right Livelihood;
- Right Effort;
- Right Mindfulness; and
- Right Concentration.
Buddhist schools did not operate in isolation; rather, they formed a federal structure of organizations known as Viharas or Monasteries. These monasteries served as centers of education, teaching not only the doctrines of Buddhism but also other subjects. The primary objective of Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism. Moreover, Buddhist asceticism developed its own set of rules and regulations based on its distinct perspective and definition of the ascetic life.
3) Jainism Education period
Jainism stands as one of the oldest living religions in the world, originating in the 5th-7th century. The preachers of Jainism are called TIRTHANKARAS. According to historians, Jainism’s roots are primarily in the history of religion in Karnataka, Southern India. However, different scholars hold diverse views on its origin. Some artifacts discovered in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this remains highly speculative and subjective.
In the realm of knowledge, Jaina philosophy is characterized by pluralism and relativism. While temples, ghatikas, agraharas, brahmapuris, and Mathas served as centers of Brahmanic education, the basadis, also known as Chaityalayas and Jinalayas, played a significant role as centers for the Jaina system of education. Moreover, education in Jainism is viewed as a self-disciplinary practice, considered essential for individual welfare, social harmony, and world peace.
3.1 Aims of Education in Jainism
The Jain system advocates liberation as the ultimate aim of education. Its teachings emphasize a sharp distinction between souls and matter. Although Jainism is atheistic, it does not deny the existence of gods as beings within the cosmos. The teachings of Jainism are social and tolerant, emphasizing the well-being of all. Therefore, Jain philosophy recognizes three reliable means of knowledge, known as PRAMANA. These means include perception (PRATYAKSA), inference (ANUMANA), and testimony (SABDA). Jainism presents a unique perspective on knowledge. Rather than being something external to be grasped and possessed by the soul, knowledge is considered a state of the soul itself. Thus, this system underscores the social, economic, moral, and spiritual aims of education.
3.2 Curriculum in Jainism education
Jain views are both relativistic and pluralistic, recognizing both the spiritual and material aspects. Therefore, education aims at imparting knowledge and fostering intelligence in a child. This philosophy emphasizes providing individualized curriculum and courses to students based on their personal needs and interests. The origin of Jain philosophy can be traced back to prehistoric times. Jainism is centered on restoring the ideal character of the spirit; hence, students must be taught to perceive things from different perspectives, guiding them towards various actions and activities. The Jaina curriculum encompasses social sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational education, and various co-curricular activities, including yoga exercises.
3.3 Methods of Teaching in Jainism education
Those who teach religion are called spiritual teachers, and among Jains, they are known as SADHUS. Jainism denounces the caste system and any hierarchy of classes in society. The system of co-education and women’s education are also important aspects. The Jaina system emphasizes liberalism through the concept called ANEKANT, implying that all students do not necessarily need to agree with the viewpoint of a teacher.
Jainism places a strong emphasis on non-violence, teaching that one should not hurt the feelings of others even through speech. This system prioritizes socialized techniques, experiments, learning by doing, and coordination. Moreover, the Jaina education system underscores the discussion method and maximizes student participation in the teaching-learning process. One prominent historian states that the method of Jaina teaching was scientific and comprised of five essential parts. They are known as:
- VACHANA (Reading);
- PRACHCHANA (Asking questions);
- ANUPREKSA (Pondering over);
- AMHAYA (Learning by part); and
- DHARMAPALESA (preaching of religion to masses).
The main characteristic of the Jaina system of education was its encouragement of co-education, where the teacher is considered a spiritual or intellectual father. Jaina teachers are commonly referred to as Tammadi, Oja, Upadhyaya, Guruvadi, Acharya, Goravi Bhattaraka, and Gurugalu. Jainism teaches that the path to enlightenment involves nonviolence and minimizing harm to all living things, including plants and animals. Consequently, high moral qualities were expected of teachers.
Similar to Hindus and Buddhists, Jains believe in reincarnation. Jains also believe that bad karma is caused by harming living things. To avoid bad karma, Jains must adhere to ahimsa, a strict code of nonviolence. For teachers, this means not only possessing a deep understanding of their subject and effective teaching methods but also genuinely loving their pupils. The Jaina monastic life was well organized. After admission, a supervisor, known as the NIRYAPAKA, closely monitored the behavior of each student.
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